44 MARCH 2024 • WORLD AQUACULTURE • WWW.WAS.ORG fish products. Dried and smoked fish have been shown to exhibit inelastic demand, which means that low-income customers would continue to buy fish despite rising prices since other animal protein choices like poultry and beef are not cheap (Nakwenya et al. 2017). Discussion Despite many women and youths being players in the smallscale supply of fish products, impartialities still exist in the capture fisheries and aquaculture value chains in these and other SSA countries. Chijoka (2017), Marinda et al. (2018) and Simmance et al. (2021) suggest that further investment in aquaculture could provide a solution to unemployment for youths and women, enhancing food security. While data on youth participation still remains scanty and not in abundance, analysis of the reviewed published data revealed that high-quality sex and age-specific data on capture fisheries and aquaculture value chains are also scarce, particularly on the distribution of roles and challenges along the fish value chains for both aquaculture and capture fisheries. The influence of gender imbalance on value chain efficiency was likewise discovered to be a domain of literature with inadequate data in all the selected countries. Generally, our review shows that there are significant gender issues in aquaculture in Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi and Zambia which affect participation and empowerment (Figure 2). The main challenges include socio-cultural norms, the lack of access and opportunity, the gender gap, and the low recognition of their contribution. The main opportunities include the potential for expansion, food security and income generation, and the integration of the sector into development strategies. Therefore, there is a need for more research and intervention to address these issues and enhance the role of women and youths in the aquaculture sector in the SSA. The main cross-cutting issues requiring attention can be discussed broadly as technical skills/services and African cultural beliefs. Other authors argued that similar issues discourage youths from participating in aquaculture in sub-Saharan African countries that lack technical skills in fish farming, lack fish farming inputs, have poor extension service programs, and have deplorable states of road infrastructure (especially feeder roads). Mwango et al. (2016) characterized this in Zambia as ‘low input, low output’, with little or no routine management, while in Kenya this was asserted by Lwenya et al. (2009). Gender disparities in aquaculture result in decreased labor productivity within the industry as well as ineffective labor allocation at the household and national levels. Customary beliefs, norms, and unfavorable state regulatory structures limit women’s access to land and water resources, assets, technology, and decision-making in many developing countries, thus limiting this group to the bottom end of supply chains in the socalled “informal” sector. Recommendations Attainment of UN SDGs such as poverty alleviation (SDG 1), zeroing hunger (SDG 2), gender equality (SDG 5), decent work for economic growth (SDG 8) and climate action (SDG 13) requires embracing gender equity and equality and youth inclusion in the formulation of national and regional policies for capture fisheries and aquaculture (Nkhoswe et al. 2023). As such, the following initiatives are specifically recommended in the sub-Saharan countries. Introduction of aquaculture scheme for fishermen Advocacy for fish farming among fishing communities would lessen pressure on wild fisheries. Fishermen should be registered and incentives should be provided to take up fish farming besides being commercial or artisanal fishermen. Demand for fish continues to rise in the SSA, due to population growth. Musumali et al. (2009) pointed out that per-capita fish supply in Zambia decreased from more than 11 kg per year in the 1970s to 6.5 kg by 2015, and that restoring a per-capita supply to 10kg would require an increase in yearly output of 50,000 tonnes, which has not happened. Provision of extension education and encouraging investments As part of extension training, youths and women in capture fisheries and aquaculture should be taught about the need for savings. Microfinance banking services should be made available to them in much simpler ways that local communities can understand, easily access, and reinvest in other trades, such as integrated agricultural farming, after affordably accumulating capital. This will be a more stable and reliable way than the risky keeping of finances (money hoarding) through the “merry-go-round” community systems. FIGURE 2. Employment by gender in global aquaculture. FAO data. FIGURE 3. Agro-ecological rationale.
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