W RLD September 2009 Volume 40 No. 3 aquaculture What’s ahead for aquaculture industry in Malaysia
World Aquaculture 1 WORLD AQUACULTURE Magazine World Aquaculture magazine is published by the World Aquaculture Society. The home office address is: World Aquaculture Society, 143 J.M. Parker Coliseum, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA. Tel: +1-225-578-3137; Fax: +1-225-578-3493; e-mail: carolm@was.org. World Aquaculture Society Home Page: http://www.was.org WORLD AQUACULTURE SOCIETY OFFICERS, 2008-2009 President, Lorenzo Juarez President-elect, Dr. Jeffrey Hinshaw Past President, Sungchul (Charles) Bai Secretary, Julie Delabbio Treasurer, Jay Parsons DIRECTORS M.C. Nandeesha William Daniels Barry Costa-Pierce Marco Saroglia Graham Mair Junda Lin CHAPTER REPRESENTATIVES Hoang Tung (Asian Pacific) Douglas Drennan (USAS) Rodrigo Roubach (Latin America and Caribbean) Kwang-Sik (Albert) Choi (Korea) Hiroshi Fushimi (Japan) HOME OFFICE STAFF Carol Mendoza, Director, carolm@was.org Judy E. Andrasko, Assistant Director, JudyA@was.org WORLD AQUACULTURE EDITORIAL STAFF Robert R. Stickney, Editor-in-Chief Mary Nickum, Editor Amy Broussard, Layout Editor WAS CONFERENCES AND SALES John Cooksey, Director of Conferences and Sales World Aquaculture Conference Management P.O. Box 2302 Valley Center, CA 92082 Tel: +1-760-751-5005; Fax: +1-760-751-5003 e-mail: worldaqua@aol.com Manuscripts and Correspondence: Submit two (2) copies of all manuscripts and one (1) copy of correspondence to Mary Nickum, Editor, World Aquaculture Magazine, 16201 E. Keymar Drive, Fountain Hills, AZ 85268 USA. E-mail: mjnickum@ gmail.com. Letters to the Editor or other comments should be addressed to Editor-in-Chief Robert R. Stickney, 2700 Earl Rudder Freeway South, Suite 1800, College Station, TX 77845 USA. World Aquaculture (ISSN Number 1041-5602) is published quarterly by the World Aquaculture Society, 143 J.M. Parker Coliseum, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 USA. Library subscriptions are $50 annually for United States addresses, and $65 annually for addresses outside the United States. Individual subscriptions are a benefit of membership in the World Aquaculture Society. Annual membership dues: Students, $40; Individuals, $60; Corporations (for-profit), $250; Sustaining, $100 (individuals or non-profits); Lifetime (individuals), $1,000; E-Membership, $10 (no publications, meeting discounts and not an active member in last five years). Periodicals Postage paid at Baton Rouge, Louisiana and additional mailing offices. Twenty-five percent of dues is designated for a subscription to World Aquaculture magazine. Postmaster: Send address changes to the World Aquaculture Society, 143 J.M. Parker Coliseum, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 USA. ©2009, The World Aquaculture Society. ■ W RLD AQUACULTURE Vol. 40 No. 3 September 2009 Cover photo: Some varieties of the Discus fish. See page 26. (Continued on page 2) 9 Productivity improvement of red clinging crab Mithraculus forceps through modeling Joana Figueiredo 14 The United States Aquaculture Society Awards — An Underutilized Benefit for Chapter Members Anita M. Kelly 16 Study on bacteriological and heavy metal contamination and its potential risk in fish farms in the Suez Canal Area, Egypt Howaida R. Gabr and Sahar El Alfy 22 First breeding of the spangled emperor, Lethrinus nebulosus (Forsskäl, 1775), in the United Arab Emirates Omer M. Yousif, Krishna Kumar and Abdul Fatah Alia 26 The current status and future prospects for the aquaculture industry in Malaysia Wing-Keong Ng 32 Freshwater shrimp culture is alive and well in Texas Granvil Treece 35 Application of several treatment techniques for solid wastes from freshwater fish farms Aintzane Esturo, María Revuelta and Jaime Zufía 41 The novel tilapia-rabbit integrated culture: A means for poverty reduction for rural people Mostafa A.R Hossain, M. Sharif Azad, M. Nahiduzzaman, Debasish Saha, M. Abu Sayeed and M. Ekram Azim 46 The evolution of a worldwide shrimp industry Hans Ackefors 58 Deepwater rice-fish integrated culture system: A viable option for increasing fish production as well as natural water harvest D. N. Das, R. N. Mandal and P. K. Mukhopadhyay
2 September 2009 Editor’s column In the June issue of World Aquaculture I made some remarks about the second edition of a general aquaculture book that I spent much of last year and early 2009 rewriting. I’m pleased to say it has been published and now available from CABI (orders@cabi.org). My reason for telling readers this is not to solicit orders for the book but to indicate that this book is going to be my last one on the subject that has been the basis of my professional activities for something like 40 years. It takes a lot of time and effort to produce a textbook, and it’s done not to put money in the pocket of the author, but to provide current information, to the extent possible, to the target audience. I like to think that I’ve kept up on what’s going on in the field through activities such as reading with interest and editing the articles in this magazine and attending meetings such as those convened by WAS. But, I’ve been away from active research and teaching for a number of years since I became the Director of the Texas Sea Grant College Program. I think it’s time for more active researchers to write the general aquaculture texts in the future, but I’d like to warn them that with the pace of research, it’s a daunting job. I’ve probably made this known to readers in the past (I didn’t go back to check previous editor’s columns), but whether or not that’s the case, I will state here that my interest in aquaculture developed because I was interested in finding ways to enhance aquatic animal production to feed people high quality seafood. I’ve always considered myself to be an environmentalist. While I’ve never been involved in commercial aquaculture, I have worked and been involved with many commercial culturists, and am convinced that the majority of them are dedicated to producing their products in an environmentally responsible way. Who suffers first if the culturist creates environmental damage? Any rational person would respond, “the culturist!” That’s been my mantra for many years, though I’m afraid it falls on deaf ears when it comes to those who, for whatever reason, are opposed to aquaculture. Opposition to aquaculture is not a debilitating issue to aquaculture development in many nations, but it’s a nagging problem in the United States and some other countries. I am a strong proponent of developing nations moving increasingly to domestic consumption of their aquaculture production. That means that more and more people in those nations have elevated their economic status to the point that they can afford to purchase commodities that were formerly exported. Once imports of aquaculture products from such counties are no longer available to nations where aquaculture is seen as a blight on the environment (without substantiation in many cases), perhaps countries such as mine will come to their senses. One of my messages has been, let’s focus on responsible aquaculture. You’ve seen that before in this column and I am convinced that responsible aquaculture (many refer to it as sustainable aquaculture) not only has potential but is readily achievable given today’s technology and the innovativeness of those who are committed to make it happen. For those of us in nations that will need to continuously expand aquaculture production to meet demand as imports are reduced and demand grows with the increasing population, it will be necessary to get out the truth about how aquaculture can be conducted responsibly to the public. With that in mind, I urge you to read USAS President Doug Drennan’s column in this issue. His ideas about developing committees to get the truth about aquaculture to the public and promote teaching about aquaculture in courses in our K-12 and university systems is laudable and worthy of consideration by other WAS affiliates. We need to quit talking among ourselves and become proactive with respect to getting the science associated with aquaculture out there in a way that can be readily understood by the public, and let us not forget, the regulatory agencies. — Robert R. Stickney Editor-in-Chief 65 Development of aquatic feeds by extrusion cooking Joseph P. Kearns Departments 4 USAS President’s Message 5 The passing of Prof. Yan Yi 6 Promotion and Membership Committee 7 Indaqua 2009 24 New Literature 71 Advertisers’ Index 72 Calendar 72 Membership Application Contents (continued)
World Aquaculture 3 Typically this column would be the second in the WAS president’s term and would be reporting on all the great events from the annual convention. But this year I still have the conference in Veracruz to look forward to September 25-29 and I hope many of you will be joining me there. New directors and officers will begin our terms at that conference, so until then I continue to write this “president-elect’s” column. One benefit of having the conference four months late is that current board members and committees have had a little more time to reach their goals before the next report! A drawback is that I cannot yet report on their progress and on any new committee leaders until after the meeting. I am confident many of the committee leaders will remain and continue their efforts in the upcoming year. In my last column, I discussed some of the issues we will focus on, such as the means to get accepted manuscripts for JWAS published in a shorter time frame, and possible approaches to keeping the current high level of quality of World Aquaculture Magazine while enhancing its economic sustainability. We will rely heavily on input from the editors of these publications for recommendations on how to approach these tasks, and will need input from members directly and through the Publications Committee, currently co-chaired by Lorenzo Juarez and Sungchul (Charles) Bai. In a survey by the Industrial Relations Committee (see the article by L. Juarez, published in the June 2006 issue of World Aquaculture), members expressed the view that while WAS is supportive of the aquaculture industry, the society is perceived as being geared more toward support of academic activities, including research and with an orientation toward students. Personally, I think facilitating involvement and growth of student participation will benefit industry growth and is an area that WAS should continue to enhance. Other suggestions from the survey for making WAS more responsive to the needs of industry included: 1) issuing information on basic aquaculture techniques, 2) publishing lists of specialists and resources in specific areas of aquaculture, 3) having more industryoriented sessions at WAS conferences, and 4) providing white papers with the best scientific information available on aquaculture issues that are, or have the potential to become controversial. WAS emphasizes industry-oriented session development at its conferences and has many sessions scheduled for Veracruz as well as for the upcoming Triennial meeting in San Diego. These sessions have been encouraged at WAS conferences for many years and will continue to be enhanced. The other three items mentioned can be addressed at least in part by the development of publications and the approach to dissemination of the material. Online access to more published materials available to WAS through its publishing partners, solicitation of specific white papers and other items (No. 2 for example) for our magazine or journal, and possibly even incorporation of “live feed” or similar types of information on the website are all items that are being considered. We will consider these and other opportunities at the upcoming board meeting in Veracruz and I hope the outcome will demonstrate a continued high level of responsiveness to the stated needs of our members. Come to the annual WAS Business meeting, Friday, September 25, 4 to 5 p.m. at Room Olmeca #7 in the World Trade Convention Center, and tell us what YOU think. — Jeff Hinshaw President-elect Be a Show Off! The Editorial Staff of World Aquaculture would like to publish more examples of facilities. We know members are proud of their commercial and governmental facilities and we’d like to have more input into what we referred to as the laboratory series that was initiated a few years ago. Don’t be shy. Send us a description of your farm or facility along with plenty of photos. All submissions to this series should be sent to Mary Nickum (to see how to do that, you can find her contact information on page 1 of this issue). President-elect’s Column
4 September 2009 USAS President’s Message As this is my first message at USAS President I would like to thank the membership for their support in choosing me to lead the US Aquaculture Society and represent the society on the board of the World Aquaculture Society. I’d also like to thank those of you that were able to attend Aquaculture America 2009 in Seattle, WA and help make it a successful conference even give the current economic turmoil in the US. This says a lot about our society, the dedication of our membership and our industry in general. In 2010 USAS will celebrate its 20th Anniversary!!! USAS plans to recognize those with 10+ years membership. Chris Green has agreed to serve as the Program Chairman for the 2011 Aquaculture America Conference in New Orleans and Reg Blaylock has agreed to chair the Steering Committee. Thanks to both of you for volunteering to serve. Our Publications committee chaired by Wade Watanabe continues to do an outstanding job. Wade and his committee, with the assistance of Wiley-Blackwell Publishing, recently published their third book since 2007 and Wade along with co-author Harry Daniels have a fourth book entitled “Practical Flatfish Culture and Stock Enhancement” due to be published later this year or in early 2010. Ken Riley, our Student Liaison, is already making plans for the student activities for the WAS Triennial next year in San Diego, CA. Matt DiMaggio a doctoral student at the University of Florida, has agreed to serve as the 2010-2011 Student Liaison and will be assisting Ken with the plans for San Diego. As the new President of USAS several of the goals I hope to accomplish during my term include the formation of a new committee to Promote and Educate the Public as to the Safety, Science and Sustainability of Aquaculture and Aquaculture Products. Frankly, I am really disturbed by the bad press aquaculture receives since most is either not sciencebased or simply based on bad science. I think it is time for the USAS (and others) to take a more proactive role in promoting/protecting our industry and what better way to do that than through education. Along the same lines with the Board’s cooperation I would also like to see the formation of a new committee to Promote Aquaculture Education at the K-12 and undergraduate levels and USAS’s participation in the development of Standardized Aquaculture Teaching Curriculums for K-12. Dave Cline, an Aquaculture Extension Specialist at Auburn University, is currently working on his Ph.D. examining teacher priorities for aquaculture education topics and teacher confidence in teaching those subject areas with the goal of identifying teacher training needs and gaps in available teaching materials. Dave participated in our recent Board of Directors conference call and prior to the call provided the Board with a list of suggestions for how USAS can get involved in aquaculture education. Additionally, he provided a quote from the summary portion of the National Aquaculture Curriculum Phase II Evaluation Report submitted to the National Council for Agriculture Education/USDA that to me sums up why USAS should be on the forefront of this effort. The quote David provided (Conroy & Peasley, 1998, page 22) starts out saying “Aquaculture has, perhaps more than any other agriculture or academic content area, the potential for interdisciplinary and collaborative instruction.” The evaluation team then cited the survey data and said that it “indicates the opportunities are limitless and go beyond the traditional academic-vocational integration.” At a time when enrollment in college aquaculture programs is down nationwide, USAS’s participation would also provide an opportunity to introduce aquaculture to the next generation of aquaculturists. I’d also like to take this opportunity to announce several “new” Student Awards. USAS in collaboration with the Fish Culture Section of the American Fisheries Society has established the “FCS/USAS Best Student Abstract Travel Award.” To be eligible you must be a member of both the AFS Fish Culture Section and USAS and be presenting at the conference. This is a $500 Award. Another new award for 2010 is the “James Ebeling Undergraduate Student Travel Scholarship.” Dr. James Ebeling has generously donated $500 to fund conference travel for a deserving undergraduate who demonstrates in interest and potential to contribute to the field of US Aquaculture. The only eligibility requirement is that the student must be enrolled in a two- or four-year undergraduate degree program with an emphasis in aquaculture. The award also includes 1-year student membership in WAS and the US Chapter and a complimentary student registration to the conference. James challenges others to step forward to sponsor additional student travel grants. For more information of these and other Student Awards please contact Michael Schwarz via e-mail at mschwarz@vt.edu. Finally, I’d like to thank immediate Past-President Rebecca Lochmann for her excellent leadership of the society during her recent term and look forward to continuing to work with her as she leads the Executive Board. Additionally, I’d like to welcome new board members Reg Blaylock and Gef Flemlin as well as express my appreciation for the continued dedication of those returning board members, committee chairs and committee members. LaDon Swan also deserves special thanks for his continuing effort to update USAS’s 5-Year Strategic Plan. LaDon has set an aggressive timeline to have (Continued on page 6)
World Aquaculture 5 It is with great sadness that I wish to announce the passing away of Yang Yi, the beloved President of the Asian Fisheries Society and Professor in the College of Aqua-Life Science and Technology at the Shanghai Fisheries University on the early morning of August 1, 2009. The Society had lost a great friend and a leader in aquaculture. On behalf of the Council and members of the Asian Fisheries Society, I wish to extend my heartfelt condolences and sympathy to his family and parents in Chengdu. Prof. Yang Yi was born on June 19, 1963. He received his B.Sc. from Sichuan University, China in 1985 and his M.Sc. and D. Tech. Sc. degrees from the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand in 1992 and 1997, respectively. His research interests were aquaculture production systems, aquaculture wastewater treatment and recycling, water quality analyses and management in aquaculture, fish genetics and information data. Prof Yang Yi was a visiting research investigator at the University of Michigan, USA, where he gained advanced knowledge in computer modeling, experimental design and data analyses. He had more than 20 years of teaching and research experience in aquaculture. He was an Assistant/ The passing of Prof.Yan Yi Associate Professor at AIT seconded by the University of Michigan through its USAID sponsored Aquaculture CRSP project from June 1999 to July 2007. In 2007 he re-located back to China and took up the dual position of Professor at the Shanghai Fisheries University in Shanghai and the Director of Sichuan Aquacultural Engineering and Technology Research Center in Chengdu, China. He coordinated the Aquaculture CRSP activities in South and Southeast Asian countries, namely Bangladesh, Nepal, Vietnam and China since 1999. Prof Yang Yi was a very active member of the Asian Fisheries Society (AFS) and a councilor of AFS. His contributions were recognized by AFS members and he was elected as the President of AFS 2007-2010. Yang Yi was an excellent aquatic scientist and a friend to many young scientists in Asia. He had always worked tirelessly for AFS and was my great personal friend. His departure will be sorely missed by all his friends and colleagues in the Asian-Pacific. Prof. Yang Yi had been a member of the World Aquaculture Society since 2003. — Dr Chan-Lui Lee Immediate Past President, AFS Attention Shutterbugs We get a lot of great photos that appear in conjunction with many of the articles in World Aquaculture, but we often need to search for a really outstanding cover photo. We get some good photos that are oriented horizontally and don’t work well as covers. How would you like to have one of your photos featured on a cover of this magazine? World Aquaculture announces the cover photo competition. Submit your aquaculture-related photos to editor Mary Nickum (see page one for how to do that). They need to be high resolution (350 dpi or better preferred) digital photos taken vertically as shown in the example. We’ll pick what we consider to be the best photo from among those submitted each quarter. Photos should be submitted by February 1, May 1, August 1 and November 1 for the March, June, September and December issues, respectively. Don’t forget to send a caption with your photos so we can tell the readers what they’re looking at.
6 September 2009 Promotion and Membership Committee This committee has been making constant efforts to attract members from various parts of the world to make the World Aquaculture Society (WAS) a truly global organization. The membership fee is one of the major hurdles for the developing country individuals to join the society. Even if the individuals are willing to pay the fee, there have been difficulties involved in making payments through a bank. WAS has been examining ways to mitigate such problems and attract more members. New measures introduced To avoid problems involved with annual renewal, a five-year membership has been introduced with a 10 percent discount. A good number of people have taken up membership under this category. In order to help the developing country individuals, e-membership has also been introduced. However, the growth of membership under this category has been slow. There are still several communication issues, but with the improvement in the internet service, this category of membership is expected to grow. The WAS board has also approved the provision of a maximum of six complimentary memberships to the deserving applicants from the developing countries. This membership, once secured, can be renewed up to five years. The Rhode Island University Sea Grant Program in the United States and the Institute of Aquaculture in the United Kingdom have also provided some complimentary membership. The winners of these memberships have been assisting WAS in promoting WAS activities in their area. China China, the world’s largest aquaculture producer, hosted the 2002 World Aquaculture Conference in Beijing. The China Society of Fisheries is an affiliate of WAS. Membership from China is small at present and the committee has placed a special emphasis on increasing membership and enhancing the role of WAS in Chinese aquaculture activities. WAS power point presentations and the WAS poster have already been translated into Chinese. Several presentations were also organized in the leading Chinese aquaculture institutions by the two of our committee members, Dr. Junda Lin and Dr. Donghuo Jiang. These individuals recognize that awareness about the society is poor and strong publicity is needed to attract more members from China. Power point and poster on WAS The WAS poster and the power point presentation have been translated into various languages and uploaded on the website ( www.was.org). Anyone wanting to translate the materials into other languages should contact the WAS Home Office. Fellow of World Aquaculture Society The Board of the World Aquaculture Society has proposed establishing a World Aquaculture Society Fellows (WASF) Program to honor outstanding WAS members for their achievements in aquaculture. Fellows will be individuals “who have made outstanding achievements in aquaculture science, industry, outreach or extension as recognized by their peers.” A WASF program will bring a greater level of respectability to WAS since Fellows will provide additional leadership for the Society, and will serve as ambassadors involved closely with the Society’s growth and development. WAS Fellows will serve as distinguished colleagues to whom the WAS and its members can look for guidance as global aquaculture evolves. Criteria for nomination and selection have been developed based on the suggestions provided by members. The final proposal will be discussed and finalized during World Aquaculture 2009 in Veracruz, Mexico. Promotion of membership in Africa The committee made a special effort to organize sessions related to Africa during WAS 2008. An email group has also been established to connect those interested in establishing an African chapter of the WAS. The membership was promoted during the PAFFA (Pan-African Fish and Fisheries Association) conference held in Ethiopia and in the 8th International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture (ISTA) held Egypt during 2008. Dr. Bill Daniels and Dr. Imad Saoud represented WAS in PAFFA and were instrumental in recruiting a large number of members. Dr. Imad Saoud also assisted in the ISTA conference to promote WAS. As a result of these efforts, there are now 70 members from different African countries. As in other countries, payment of dues is the major challenge to increasing membership in Africa. There is not only the difficulty of money transfer, but many countries also require payment of transaction fees. M.C.Nandeesha and Junda Lin Co-Chairs Dr. Barry Costa Pierce, Hoang Tung, Donghuo Jiang and Graham Mair, Members the current BOD and Past-Presidents each perform and submit to him SWOT Analysis, identify reoccurring themes in the 2008 member survey, conduct a second member survey and produce an updated plan. — Douglas Drennan President, USAS (Continued from page 4) USAS President
World Aquaculture 7 Indaqua 2009 Indaqua 2009 is a biennial event organized by the Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA). The event is used as a platform to present the trends in aquaculture production globally and showcase the new potential opportunities by inviting leading experts from different parts of the world to share their experience with Indian entrepreneurs. The 4th Indaqua was held Jan. 21-23, 2009 and attracted more than 300 delegates from India and overseas. The proceedings focused on the potentials for India to increase income through the export of cultured aquatic organisms. Dr. M.C. Nandeesha from the World Aquaculture Society was invited to participate in the event and as the Co-Chair of the Promotion and Membership committee of WAS, he utilized the opportunity to describe the activities and the interest of WAS in promoting responsible aquaculture. India at present exports nearly US$ two billion worth of seafood and, based on the latest statistics, this is the eighth largest export earner for the country. Among the various commodities, shrimp constitute more than 50 percent of the total export and the contribution from aquaculture for this commodity is increasing steadily. There is an effort to diversify the species cultured and promote new species and aquaculture techniques. The conference was inaugurated by Mr. Naveen Patnaik , Chief Minister of Orissa on Jan. 21, 2009, in the presence of several distinguished persons including Mr. Jairam Ramesh, Honorable Minister of State for Commerce from the Government of India. Both the Chief Minister and the Commerce Minister highlighted the need to develop the aquaculture sector and create employment opportunities for youth, besides enhancing income through exports. The Government would develop programs to attract investments and wherever necessary and it was sugChief Minister of Orissa Naveen Patnaik inaugurated Indaqua 2009. gested to outsource the technology to hasten aquaculture technology development for different commodities. Mr. G. Mohanakumar, Chairman, Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA) has been heading the organization for the past few years and has contributed in many ways to promote costal aquaculture development in the country by exploring new options and opportunities. With professional planning, MPEDA is in the forefront of sustainable aquaculture development in the country with the establishment of a dedicated institution called the National Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture Development in Andhra Pradesh and another centre called the Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture, which focuses mainly on developing technologies. Mr. Vishnu Bhat is providing support as the Director on technical side while Director K. Thomas is developing marketing strategies. The team has helped the organization stimulate export oriented aquaculture development in the country, while safeguarding the natural ecosystem by promoting the best management practices. Technical Sessions. The first keynote address for the conference was delivered by Dr. Mohammad R. Hasan, Fisheries Officer (Aquaculture ) from FAO, Rome. Dr. Hasan not only reviewed global trends in major aquaculture species, but also helped with projections on various potential species as well as the input supplies for aquaculture development. In 2006, with a production of 70 t, the aquaculture sector contributed US$ 90 billion for the trade. Though Asia continues to contribute the majority of aquaculture production, the rate of growth has been better in Africa and Latin America. Within Asia, China has consistently demonstrated 11.2 percent growth for the past three decades, while the average growth for Asia was around 6 percent. Dr. Hasan also highlighted the diversity of aquaculture, which now totals over 200 species and supports the livelihoods of people besides contributing to food security and supply. He recommended that the focus of research and development should aim mainly to explore more of plant protein, oil and carbohydrate sources in aquaculture feeds. Ms. May Noe Lwin from Thailand presented the technology developed for soft shell crab production. She indicated that the fattening technology available in Thailand in conjunction with the local breeding techniques may help the new industry. Mr. Y.C.Thampi Samraj from the Rajiv Gandhi Centre for Aquaculture discussed developments on the technology for the culture of sea bass in cages. With commercial feed available, it appears that in coastal areas sea bass culture technology may become viable. Professor Kevin Fitzsimmons from Arizona presented the global trend in tilapia production and indicated that it is the 5th most widely consumed item in USA. With the technological progress in evolving new varieties of tilapia and the development of processing technology to develop fillets and other products, it was predicated that tilapia will continue to dominate the aquaculture sector in the coming years. Since
8 September 2009 there is lot of interest in India in tilapia culture, with the official permission granted by the Government of India, some of the companies are set to enter into tilapia production. The second technical session included a presentation by Dr. Matthew Briggs on the culture of P. vannamei and its suitability for India. Since India has officially permitted the introduction of P. Vannamei. Issues related to its susceptibility for disease and the spread of new viruses were also discussed. While there is considerable controversy on the introduction and promotion of the species and its culture at the cost of tiger shrimp, the need to exercise care in the culture of this species in biosecure environments was highlighted. Success in producing organic giant freshwater shrimp was presented by Mr. Simon John, Joint Director of MPEDA. The technical partnership between MPEDA and SIPPO (Swiss Import Promotion Programme) has enabled the development of technology and certification by Naturland of Germany to meet European market requirements. Mr. N. R. Umesh from the National Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture Development discussed the revival of shrimp farming through evolving better management practices (BMP). The spectacular success achieved in organizing a large number of farmer groups and helping them follow good aquaculture practices that help eliminate disease risks is a technology evolved by MPEDA-NACA partnership. Today, the BMP are used in many parts of the world and are proving to be good tools to ensure sustainable farming practices. Dr. Neil Svennevig from Denmark presented the potentials available at present for the offshore farming in India and emphasized the need for using species that can be cultured in periods of 6-8 months. Because of the geographical location and environment, only some areas are suitable and such sites can be chosen for developing the technology. The session Chaired by Mr. Vishnu Bhat with Dr. M.C. Nandeesha from WAS serving as the panelist highlighted the scope for organic aquaculture as well as hasten costal aquaculture development through BMP. In order to promote BMP in a big way, the need to create well trained practitioners was emphasized. In the last session, Dr. Sena DeSilva , Director General of NACA presented the keynote address on new challenges confronting Asian aquaculture. He remarked on how small scale aquaculture is the backbone to Asian aquaculture and the way that type of aquaculture is helping the poor by providing food and economic security. The examples of how catfish culture and the culture of rohu in Vietnam are helping the country earn foreign exchange through exports and creating of employment was also highlighted. He also pointed at the need to give highest importance to food quality standards, traceability and certification, in view of changing market trends. The effort of NACA to evolve regionally acceptable certification standards involving all member Governments was presented. Asian farmers, being small scale in nature, need to be organized into groups to help them derive best benefits from the purchase of inputs to marketing their products. As product quality is the key factor, such organizations of farmers into groups helps in meeting the international standards for the products produced Dr. R. Paul Raj, Secretary to the Coastal Aquaculture Authority of India presented the new guidelines evolved by the agency that have been set up as per the directions of the supreme court of India. The registration of all farms involved in costal aquaculture is now mandatory and the farms have to follow established norms to prevent pollution and promote sustainable farming practices. Ms. Shirlene Maria from INFOFISH presented the market trends for various sea foods and highlighted the growing market for tilapia globally. Also, value added products are gaining popularity with the changing economies and life styles of the people in many areas. The symposium concluded with a presentation by Prof. Shankar on biosecurity in aquaculture. As culture systems are being intensified, the need for promoting bio-secure culture practices to safeguard the environment and prevent the spread of diseases were highlighted. The session was Co-Chaired by Dr. Vasudevappa from the National Fisheries Development Corporation and Mr. K.Thomas, Director of Marketing with Mr. D. Ramraj serving as the panelist. It was pointed out that Indian aquaculture should focus on developing better management practices wherever available. Certification being a key issue, it was suggested by the panel to focus on that aspect and develop procedures that can help small farmers. — Dr. M.C.Nandeesha World Aquaculture Society
World Aquaculture 9 Mithraculus forceps larvae (photographed by Gil Penha-Lopes) Productivity improvement of red clinging crab Mithraculus forceps through modeling Joana Figueiredo1 A worldwide increase in the popularity of reef aquariums within the past decade has resulted in increased demand for marine ornamental species for the aquarium hobby trade. The aquarium trade is a billion dollar business that may sustain continued growth for years. The majority of organisms, 90 percent, are still harvested from the wild, particularly from highly threatened coral reefs in Southeast Asian countries where their collection represents a profitable income for natives. Destructive collection techniques include poisoning with cyanide and physical destruction of the reefs. Additionally, many animals die in transit before getting to retailers or home aquariums. Fortunately, legislation to protect ornamental species and certifications to control the business has been increasing (Cato and Brown 2003). To reduce the pressure on the natural environment and satisfy the growing demand of hobbyists, inexpensive rearing techniques of highly prized and priced species needs to be developed. Captively raised animals are more resilient than wild animals as they are accustomed to aquarium conditions and often readily consume prepared food, such as pellets or flake food. For these reasons, hobbyists may be willing to pay extra for environmentally habituated animals. Presently, the percentage of commercially cultured ornamentals is still limited to a few fish species, mainly clownfish of the genus Amphiprion, some corals and a few marine decapods. Organisms most desired by hobbyists for their home aquariums can be divided into four groups: the most beautiful and colorful such as clownfish, angelfish and surgeon fish; the strange and weird looking such as seahorses and eels; ones which blend in with the aquarium and challenge us to find them such as frogfish and stonefish and finally, the cleaners that assure your aquarium remains healthy, for instance. Organisms exhibiting cleaning behavior include pest controllers like the sea slug Berghia verrucicornis, peppermint shrimp Lysmata wurdemanni and Monaco shrimp Lysmata seticaudata, all of which control the pest glass-anemone Aiptasia pallida. The emerald crab Mithraculus sculptus and red clinging crab Mithraculus forceps control the pest bubble algae Valonia and Ventricaria (Figueiredo et al. in press). Other cleaners include macroalgae grazers, such as the scarlet reef hermit crab Paguristes cadenati and the scavengers and detritivores that include the bumble bee snail Engina sp. and Nassarius snail. Aquaculture research tends to focus on the biological aspects of culture and often overlooks the production perspective when a culture protocol is developed. Some of the major goals required to aid the aquaculture industry are the optimization of protocols, particularly large scale culture, and production prediction. Modeling offers the advantage of using data from studies previously published to make predictions. As opposed to statistical analyses that will only reveal the relationships among the data, a model can offer a deeper understanding and simplified picture of reality and yield a better management plan. The biological aspects of culture are important to producers; however, this information needs to be adjusted for production. As an example, some of the questions for which a producer would like answers in larval culture include the following. What are the most productive abiotic and biotic conditions for larval rearing? How many juveniles will one obtain at the end of larval culture to initiate grow-out? Models, as opposed to statistical analysis, allow not only the comparison of survival to juvenile of the larvae produced, but also predict metamorphosis synchronism and day metamorphosis begins. Rather than using final survival to evaluate how good a certain condition, for instance stocking density, productivity should be used. For example, for a 10 L tank, considering we have an unlimited supply of larvae, using a stocking density
10 September 2009 Fig. 1. Crustacean larval rearing system where Mithraculus forceps larvae were raised to juvenile. of 10 larvae/L promotes 90 percent survival to the juvenile stage, while using a stocking density of 40 larvae/L promotes 60 percent survival to the juvenile stage. Based on survival, the lower stocking density appears to be a better choice but the lower stocking density only produces 90 juveniles, while the higher stocking density produces 240 juveniles. The prediction of this and other aspects are fundamental for good management of an aquaculture facility. The knowledge of ornamental species culture has not been utilized in conjunction with models to predict and increase productivity. To reduce the collection of wild specimens, protocols and information on culture productivity should be addressed and be available to the aquaculture industry (Figueiredo and Narciso 2006). Through the use of models, one can predict and maximize production of captive raised animals. Survival to juvenile, larval duration and synchronism of metamorphosis are some of the various aspects that can be predicted using models. Finding out the optimal conditions to raise an animal at each stage of development is not always straight forward because it is almost impossible to test one factor, such as temperature, over its entire range. Instead, researchers have been selecting a few values within a range and choosing as optimum the value that yields higher survivorship and/or growth. Following the example of temperature, a researcher cultures the desired species at four temperatures, within the range of temperatures the species occurs in nature, for instance 21, 24, 27 and 30ºC, compares the results achieved at each temperature, detecting if survival and growth significantly differed between treatments, through an analysis of variance, and finally suggests that producers use the tested temperature that promoted the highest survival and growth, for instance 27º C. An inherent problem arises because the optimum temperature may not be one of the tested values; who can guaranty the optimum temperature was not 28ºC? Instead, researchers should select the best conditions by extrapolating results that could be achieved within the temperature range of 21-30º C through the use of a response curve and use it to estimate the optimum temperature (see sidebars). To exemplify how models can help improve productivity of aquaculture protocols we will use the larval and juvenile stages of the red clinging crab Mithraculus forceps. To construct the models, we will be using data obtained from the literature (Rhyne et al. 2005, Penha-Lopes et al. 2005, Penha-Lopes et al. 2006) where experiments were carried out using a larval rearing system developed and described by Calado et al. (2003). The system uses cylindrico-conical tanks and benefits from upwelling water flow that allows larvae and prey to remain in suspension and the use of screens that permit removal of prey items from the tank without manipulation of the larvae. Salinity of 35 g/L, pH of 8.0-8.2 and a photoperiod of 14L:10D were used in all experiments (Figure 1). Temperature, diet, stocking density and prey density tested during Mithraculus forceps larval and juvenile culture are presented on Table 1. Data obtained for survival and growth during larval and juvenile culture were used in the development of the models. Larval survival to juvenile was modeled with an asymptotic model. For stocking density, Survival to juvenile(%) = Φ 1x(1 – e-e(0.25)x(DPH -8)) (Figure 2), where Φ1=84.28% for 10 larvae.L-1; Φ 1=76.71% for 20 larvae.L-1; Φ 1=63.93% for 40 larvae.L-1; Φ 1=31.83% for 80 larvae.L-1. While for prey density, Survival to juvenile(%) = Φ 1x(1-e-e(0.0041)x(DPH-8)) (Figure 3), where Φ 1=8.54% for 1 nauplii.mL-1; Φ 1=42.61% for 4 nauplii/mL; Φ1=62.96% for 7 nauplii/mL; Φ1=66.09% for 12 nauplii/mL. Response curves were used to find the optimum stocking density and prey density during larval culture. Productivity was calculated by multiplying final survival to juvenile (%) by stocking density (SD) and tank volume (10 L) and the response curve is: productivity = -4.129 + 9.258 x SD – 0.076 x SD (Figure 2), Fig. 2. Effect of stocking density (SD, larvae./L) on larval rearing. Fig. 3. Effect of prey density (PD, nauplii or prey/ml) on larval rearing.
World Aquaculture 11 Table 1. Mithraculus forceps larval and juvenile culture conditions tested, protocol previously suggested, protocol suggested through modeling and productivity (per tank.year -1 for larval culture and per m2.year -1for juvenile culture) improvement through modeling (NHA – newly hatched Artemia; EAM- 2days old Artemia enriched with Algamac 3050™; Amphora (microalgae); FNHA- frozen newly hatched Artemia; C.P. – commercial pellets; juv.- juveniles; * - it was not object of optimization modeling) Protocol Protocol Variable Conditions previously suggested Productivity tested suggested after modeling improvement 25ºC Temperature 28ºC 28ºC* - 28ºC NHA Diet NHA NHA* - EAM Larval 10 larvae.L-1 Culture Stocking 20 larvae.L-1 40 60 50% density 40 larvae.L-1 larvae.L-1 larvae.L-1 80 larvae.L-1 1 prey.mL-1 Prey 4 preys.mL-1 7 10 12% density 7 preys.mL-1 preys.mL-1 preys.mL-1 12 preys.mL-1 25ºC Temperature 28ºC 28ºC* - 28ºC NHA Amphora FNHA NHA Diet C.P. NHA + 26% NHA + Amphora Amphora NHA + FNHA Juvenile NHA + C.P. Culture Prey 8 8 8* - density preys.mL-1 preys.mL-1 preys.mL-1 225 juv.m-2 Stocking 1130 juv.m-2 3395 12900 280% density 3395 juv.m-2 juv.m-2 juv.m-2 13580 juv.m-2 which optimum is 60 larva/L. For prey density, survival (%) = -3.14 + 13.24 x PD – 0.64 x PD2 (Figure 3), which optimum is 10 preys/mL. Diet effect on juvenile survival during growout was modeled with a logistic model Juveniles’ Survival = 100 + (Figure 4), where Φ2=88.04 and Φ3=6.19 for NHA, Φ2=40.88 and Φ3=15.54 for Amphora, Φ2=68.42 and Φ3=9.71 for FNHA, Φ2=36.52 and Φ3=8.41 for CP, Φ2=60.85 and Φ3=12.76 for NHA + Amphora, Φ2=62.48 and Φ3=8.92 for NHA + FNHA, and Φ2=70.99 and Φ3=8.92 for NHA + CP. The effect of stocking density was modeled with a linear (polynomial) model: Juvenile survival (%) = 100 + bx + cx2 +dx3 Fig. 4. Effect of diet and on juvenile culture. (Figure 5), where x are days post metamorphosis and where b = - 3.6 , c = 0.17, and d = -2.65x10-3 for 226 crabs/m2, b = -1.24, c = 0.02, and d = - 9x10-5 for 1132 crabs/m2, b = -0.35
12 September 2009 , c = -0.03, and d = 7.5x10-4 for 3395 crabs/m2, b = -4.69, c = 0.14, and d = -3.7x10-3 for 6791 crabs/m2, b = -3.46, c = 0.03, and d = 4x10-5 for 13581 crabs/m2. Productivity (number of juveniles/m2) was calculated by multiplying number survivors at 28 days post metamorphosis by stocking density. A response curve was used to find optimum stocking density during juvenile culture: productivity (%) = 1.065 x SD – 4.13x10-5 x SD2 (Figure 5), which optimum is 12900 crabs/m2. The effect of diet on juvenile carapace width was modeled using linear models Juvenile CW (mm) = a + bx (Figures 4), where a= 1.0238 and b= 0.077 for NHA, a= 1.1462 and b= 0.0422 for Amphora, a= 1.0299 and b= 0.0686 for FNHA, a= 0.9505 and b= 0.0596 for CP, a= 1.0111 and b= 0.0971 for NHA + Amphora, a= 1.0361 and b= 0.0781 for NHA + FNHA, a= 0.9967 and b= 0.0633 for NHA + CP. The time to achieve commercial size (1 cm) was estimated based on these models (Figures 4): 117, 210, 131, 152, 93, 115, and 143 days for NHA, Amphora, FNHA, CP, NHA + Amphora, NHA + FNHA, and NHA + CP, respectively. Consult sidebars and Penha-Lopes et al. (2007) for further details. The larval and juvenile survival and growth models developed suggest the use of a different protocol. By using a stocking density of 60 larvae/L and a prey density of 10 Artemia nauplii/mL during larval culture, and a diet that combines newly hatched Artemia and Amphora microalgae and Fig. 5. Effect of stocking density on juvenile culture. 12,900 juveniles/m2 during juvenile culture we were able to considerably improve the productivity of Mithraculus forceps culture (Table 1). Ornamental aquaculture has been recognized as the best solution to minimize wild harvest from coral reef ecosystems, allowing a sustainable growth of the marine aquarium industry (Cato and Brown 2003). The models developed, besides being a very useful tool for production prediction, contributed to the improvement of productivity. Productivity models should be developed and provided to the producers to select the optimal conditions to culture target species (Figueiredo and Narciso 2006). By increasing productivity of aquacultured species, we can decrease the demand for wild harvested animals and protect natural environments. However, protocols still require adjustment for mass-scale culture and optimization combining bio-productive and economic predictors through modeling to maximize profitability. Notes 1Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada do Guincho, 2750-374 Cascais, Portugal. (Email: joana_figueiredo@portugalmail.pt. Acknowledgment Thanks to Justin Anto, Junda Lin, Luís Narciso and Gil Penha-Lopes for their help and constructive criticism. The author also thanks Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT) and Portuguese Government for financial support (scholarship #SFRH/BD/17130/2004). References Calado, R., L. Narciso, S. Morais, A. L. Rhyne and J.Lin. 2003. A rearing system for the culture of ornamental decapods crustaceans larvae. Aquaculture 218: 329–339. Cato, J. C. and C. L. Brown. 2003. Marine Ornamental Species: Collection, Culture and Conservation. Part III— The Invertebrates. Iowa State Press, United States. Figueiredo, J. and L. Narciso. 2006. Productivity improvement of Lysmata seticaudata (Risso, 1816) larval rearing protocol through modelling. Aquaculture 261: 1249–1258. Figueiredo, J., L. Narciso, R. Turingan and J. Lin. In press. Efficiency of using emerald crabs Mithraculus sculptus (Lamarck, 1818) to control bubble alga Ventricaria ventricosa (sin Valonia Mithraculus forceps adults (photographed by Gil PenhaLopes)
World Aquaculture 13 ventricosa) (J. Agardh, 1887) in aquaria habitats. Journal of the Marine Biological Association. Penha-Lopes, G., A. L. Rhyne, J. Lin and L. Narciso. 2005. The larval rearing of the marine ornamental crab, Mithraculus forceps (A. Milne Edwards, 1875) (Decapoda: Brachyura: Majidae). Aquaculture Research 36: 1313-1321. Penha-Lopes, G., A. L. Rhyne, J. Lin and L. Narciso. 2006. Effects of temperature, stocking density and diet on the growth and survival of juvenile Mithraculus forceps (A. Milne Edwards, 1875) (Decapoda: Brachyura: Majidae). Aquaculture Research 37: 398-408. Penha-Lopes, G., J. Figueiredo and L. Narciso. 2007. Modelling survival and growth of Mithraculus forceps’ larvae and juveniles (A. Milne Edwards, 1875) (Decapoda: Brachyura: Majidae) in aquaculture. Aquaculture 264: 285–296. Pinheiro, J. C. and D. M. Bates. 2000. Mixed-Effects Models in S and S-PLUS —Statistics and Computing. Springer-Verlag New York. Rhyne, A. L., G., Penha-Lopes and J. Lin. 2005. Growth, development, and survival of larval Mithraculus sculptus (Lamark) and Mithraculus forceps (A. Milne Edwards) (Decapoda: Brachyura: Majidae): economically important marine ornamental crabs. Aquaculture 245: 183-191. Sidebar Response curve y (x)= a + bx +cx2 + dx3 (Equation 1) Response curve is a linear (polynomial) model (Equation 1, where x is the variable, like stocking density or prey density) that allows us to predict survival or growth for the range of a variable, including values that were not tested, allowing us to find the optimum value for a certain variable. Response curves can only be applied to quantitative variables. To identify the polynomial effect: cubic, quadratic or linear, that adjusts better, we used the orthogonal polynomials method. These models were fit to the observed data with computer regression models in Statistica 7.0. The optimum value is estimated as the x value that produces the higher y (Figures 2, 3 and 4). Linear and Non-Linear Models The linear (Equation 4) and non-linear models, as in asymptotic and logistic models, (Equations 2 and 3), that allow us to predict results through time only for the tested levels of a variable (treatments), can be applied to both quantitative and qualitative variables and allow us to statistically test if parameters are significantly different between the different levels of the variable. Levels of a variable are the tested values of that variable, for instance 10, 20, 40 and 80 larvae/L are levels of the variable stocking density. The data are fit to the data using libraries “lme” and “nlme” developed by Pinheiro and Bates (2000) in software R. The program begins by estimating each parameter of the model (by maximum likelihood) for each one of the levels of the variable. The effect of the variable on each one of the parameters is tested using analysis of variance, incorporated in the development of the model. If a certain parameter is not significantly different between the different levels of the variable, the model will use the same value for that parameter for all levels of the variable, but if the parameter is significantly different between the different levels of the variable, the models will use a different value for the parameter for each level of the variable (Pinheiro and Bates 2000 for further details). Asymptotic model (Equation 2), The asymptotic model (Equation 2, where x is time) has three parameters: Φ1 is the asymptote as xg∞and represents the final survival to juvenile ( percent); Φ2 is the logarithm of the rate constant, corresponding to a half-life of t0.5 = log2/exp( Φ2) which gives an idea on the synchrony of metamorphosis (greater values indicate greater synchrony); and Φ3 is the value of x at which y = 0 indicating the time just before the first larvae is expected to metamorphose to juvenile or minimum larval duration (Figures 2 and 3). Logistic model (Equation 3) The logistic model (Equation 3, where x is Time) has four parameters: Φ1 is the horizontal asymptote as xg∞ and represents the initial percent survival; Φ2 is the horizontal asymptote as xg +∞ and represents the theoretical maximum survival for the treatment (level of the variable); Φ3 is the x value at the curve inflection point which response is midway between the asymptotes and gives us an idea of the period of greater mortality during juvenile culture; Φ4 is a scale parameter distance on the x-axis and gives us an idea of the mortality synchronism through development, a lower Φ4 indicates higher mortality synchronism (Figure 4). Linear (polynomial) Models y (x)= a + bx +cx2 + dx3 (Equation 4) The linear model (Equation 4, where x is Time) has four parameters: a, b, c and d. Unlike in the non-linear models, these parameters have no biological meaning (Figures 4 and 5).
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