50 MARCH 2018 • WORLD AQUACULTURE • WWW.WAS.ORG however, the current status of highly exploited species like the Caspian sturgeons is not very well known (UNODC 2016). The history of sturgeon aquaculture is a prime example of how wildlife farming can reduce the demand for illegally wild-caught species (UNODC 2016). In China, which is the world’s largest producer of farmed sturgeons (Bronzi et al. 2011, UNODC 2016), dependence on wild stocks for seeding has declined over the years (Wei et al. 2011), with the expectation that seed will eventually be wholly farm-sourced. In 2007, the total production of sturgeon meat by aquaculture was estimated at 29,300 t/yr, which is close to the all-time high value for capture fisheries of 32,078 t in 1977 (Bronzi et al. 2011). Aquaculture contributions to global production of meat and caviar has outstripped wild sourcing since the early 2000s and now accounts for virtually all of it (UNODC 2016). In 2014, aquaculture production of caviar accounted for 240 t, while wildsourced caviar accounted for less than 20 t. With a global captive population of about 300,000 t, it is likely that there are now more sturgeon in farms than in the wild. Consumer Demand for Wild Products The aquaculture industry has been very aware of the importance of consumer preferences between farmed and wild products. The perception of products as farmed does not matter much in consumers’ preferences (Gempesaw et al. 1995, Verbeke et al. 2007). However, awareness that the product is wild doubles the likelihood of being purchased. The Chinese may have a general preference for wild seafood, including sea cucumbers (Fabinyi and Liu 2014). Public perception may be a deterrent to the success of wildlife farming. For instance, consumers had a distinct preference for caviar labeled as derived from a “rare species” of sturgeon, despite the “rare species” and the “common species” being from the exact same source, differing only in the label (Gault et al. 2008). As such, there will likely continue to be a greater preference for wild caviar than farmed caviar. Wild-sourced caviar is labelled in the international trade as farmed, but illicit trade in this product has been quite low in recent years (UNODC 2016). Seizures of contraband consist mostly of small quantities of commercially packaged caviar in airports. Caviar consumers are generally wary of underground markets because they desire the prestige and quality that are guaranteed by branded products. Illegal trade is rampant in the seahorse market, undoubtedly spilling over into the legal trade regulated by CITES, as shown by seizure or confiscation records. Laundering of illegal products in the sea cucumber trade is less certain, although dried specimens are commonly found in shops selling Chinese food and TCM, and poaching occurs even in ponds and sea pens (Purcell et al. 2012). If farmed animals cost more to consumers than wild-caught, the market will not be inclined to support farmed products, especially because most consumers prefer wild to captive sources based on such things as perceptions of better taste and the greater “value” of wild animals (Tensen 2016). The wildlife trade economy is characterized by imperfect competition (Bulte and Damania 2005). Wildlife farming can only succeed in conserving wild populations if competition in the market is sufficiently passive. Wildlife trade depends on fickle consumer preferences and fluctuating transaction costs associated with parallel illegal trade and rising legal trade. Issues Regarding Wildlife Farming Despite the perceived benefits of wildlife farming to wild populations, there are counterarguments against its contributions to conservation of endangered species. Some conservationists have declared that it is, in fact, not conservation. The primary argument is opposition to the commodification of organisms. Commercializing breeding and legalizing trade reinforces the view of these organisms or their parts as nothing more than goods to be traded (Downes 2015). However, there are also conservationists who recognize that anti-poaching enforcement is not enough and promote the reassessment of sustainable harvest mechanisms such as wildlife farming (Challender and MacMillan 2014). Additionally, in most cases, farming is still dependent on wild stocks for initial seed or for replenishment. This problem is more complex than it appears on the surface. Continued dependence on wild populations for restocking can result in more intense hunting pressure than if the farm was not present (Bulte and Damania 2005). Conversely, complete isolation of farms from wild sources may reduce incentives to protect those wild populations. There is also a threat of laundering of illegal products from the wild into the legal wildlife trade (Bulte and Damania 2005, Tensen 2016). For example, 76 percent of traders in green pythons in Indonesia used wild-sourced snakes to add to stocks of breeding farms (Lyons and Natusch 2011). Paperwork may also include fraudulent information aimed at masking wild-caught animals as captive-bred or farmed (Bulte and Damania 2005, TRAFFIC 2016). Perhaps the largest hurdle to wildlife farming is economic. Significant capital investment is needed to establish systems for species as diverse as seahorses, sea cucumbers and sturgeon. If operational costs are prohibitive, there will be minimal incentive to switch from wild-sourcing to farming. Is Aquaculture a Viable Conservation Mechanism? • Under certain conditions, small-scale aquaculture of live coral reef organisms can be financially viable and prove effective in reducing pressure on populations of these marine organisms that are commonly traded for the aquarium industry (Pomeroy et al. 2006). However, this could work only if the following assumptions on small-scale aquaculture are met: • Technologies exist for the aquaculture of major internationally traded coral reef species, • These technologies are feasible and also socially and culturally compatible with the community, • It realistically satisfies the livelihood needs of fishers such that it is a viable alternative to fishing and there is sufficient incentive to completely cease fishing from the wild, • Fishers will find small-scale aquaculture as rewarding as traditional fishing practices in terms of livelihood and job satisfaction, and It is ecologically more sustainable than harvesting coral reef organisms from the wild. Few if any of these assumptions have been objectively tested and analyzed.
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