62 JUNE 2018 • WORLD AQUACULTURE • WWW.WAS.ORG pleco Pterogoplichthys pardalis, introduced with permission from BFAR, is also thought to have been accidentally released in the same manner, through inundation of fishponds that emptied into Laguna de Bay, now being reported as far as Agusan marsh in the southern part of the Philippines in Mindanao (Hubilla et al. 2008, Guerrero 2014). Similar situations have happened in the west, with hurricanes and flooding dispersing aggressive invasive species (Rathke 2012). The Road Beyond Despite established risk assessment technologies in various countries, adoption has been affected by notions that assessment data is far from perfect and may reduce economic benefit from countries adopting strict enforcement (Keller et al. 2007). This highlights tension between commercial interests, responsible farming and culture, and potential risk involved in the intended and accidental release of IAFS. In the Philippines, the Philippine Fisheries Code of 1998 (RA 8550) and the Fisheries Administrative Order No. 221 of 2003, along with membership in the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) have aimed at bio-safety regulation of fish and fishery products but have failed at the prevention of proliferation of IAFS in various locations in the country. The principal problem lies in the enforcement of existing laws, with small aquaculture farms and ornamental and aquarium shops operating illegally or without sanctions, to the extent that the country is considered to be the center of illegal tropical and aquarium fish trade (Alave 2012). Although the prevalence of IAFS in the Philippines cannot be ignored, a balance must be struck in developing small-scale ornamental aquaculture farms that can augment income and bolster the economy. Around 77 percent of introduced freshwater species in the Philippines are classified as beneficial and far outweigh losses sustained from IAFS (Guerrero 2014). One of the simplest methods of reducing the national susceptibility to IAFS proliferation is to augment the current manpower presently performing operations for various government agencies. With 35 major piers and 122 smaller ports, the government lacks the ability to have regular and meaningful monitoring to prevent smuggling and unlicensed breeding of ornamental IAFS. This problem is further exacerbated by the country’s archipelagic nature, increasing the challenge of coordination, transport and monitoring. Current strategies to mitigate the damage of these local IAFS include their use as food for human consumption after safety checks (C. micropeltes, P. managuensis), as fishmeal (C. ornata, P. disjunctivus), as ornamentation (P. pardalis), and as an export commodity (M. albus) (Huballa et al. 2008, Guerrero 2014, Abarra et al. 2017). Based on observation and informal reports, even if some of these fish are being sold in rural wet-markets, such as C. ornata, there is difficulty in mainstreaming the species as a palatable alternative protein source for human consumption. Utilization for fish feed is a viable option but is limited due to the lack of studies on IAFS as nutritional sources for aquaculture. Although there may be some attempts at using IAFS as potential alternative feedstuffs for commercially important fish (Abarra et al. 2017), studies are few and far between, suggesting a prolonged time if ever these do gain acceptance in local and international markets. Although these are good attempts at utilizing IAFS, stricter measures for the screening of potential invasive aliens must be performed to minimize their threat and impact on the local aquatic environment. Responsible rearing of IAFS could benefit the Philippine economy, considering that ornamental fishes have been in the top ten fisheries export products of the country in terms of value for the last two decades (Philstar Global 2009). Combining the natural tropical climate, abundant freshwater resources and government institutions that deal with aquatic fish research and monitoring, the country may be poised for success – only if it is able to balance the risks against potential benefits and to provide support to train breeders of aliens in aquariums on best practices to avoid potential environmental damage. Notes Zomesh A. Maini, Department of Biology, School of Science and Engineering, Ateneo de Manila University, Katipunan Avenue, Loyola Heights, Quezon City, NCR, Philippines 1108. Vikas Kumar, Hagerman Fish Culture Experiment Station, University of Idaho, Hagerman, Idaho, United States of America 83332 Janice A. Ragaza, Department of Biology, School of Science and Engineering, Ateneo de Manila University, Katipunan Avenue, Loyola Heights, Quezon City, NCR, Philippines 1108. Email: jragaza@ateneo.edu References Abarra, S.T., S.F. Velasquez, K.D. Guzman, J.L. Felipe, M.M. Tayamen and J.A. Ragaza. 2017. Replacement of fishmeal with processed meal from knifefish Chitala ornata in diets of juvenile Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture Reports 5:76-83. Alave, K.L. 2012. Philippines is center of illegal tropical and aquarium trade. Inquirer.net. Global Nation. [newspaper online] 11 July 2012 [cited 9 Jul 2017]: Available from: globalnation.inquirer.net/43817/ philippines-is-center-of-illegal-tropical-and-aquarium-fish-trade Alima, M.A. and J.H. Patricio. 2010. Fish diversity, ecological status, and conservation measures of the coastal waters in Tubay, Agusan Del Norte, Philippines. Asian Journal of Biodiversity 1(1):139-164. Browser, P.R. 2017. Invasive species: exotic fish disease found in New York lakes. Keuka Lake Association. [Cited 9 July 2017]. Available from: www.keukalakeassociation.org/post.php?id=28 Capps, K.A and A.S. Flecker. 2013. Invasive aquarium fish transform ecosystem nutrient dynamics. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 280:20131520. dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2013.1520 Clavero, M. and E. Garcia-Berthou. 2006. Homogenization dynamics and introduction routes of invasive freshwater fish in the Iberian Peninsula. Ecological Applications16(6):2313-2234. Red-bellied piranha Pygocentrus nattereri sold under-the-table at a local petshop in Manila, Philippines. Photo: Z.A. Maini.
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