52 JUNE 2019 • WORLD AQUACULTURE • WWW.WAS.ORG covered with individual nets or collectively with a canopy net to provide further protection against predation. When clams reached a size at which refuge against predation is no longer needed, the PVC tubes and predator netting are removed. There is continued interest and efforts in geoduck aquaculture development in Alaska and Baja California, but with low measurable output. Challenges Unlike finfish or other shellfish, geoduck farming may be more difficult due to slow growth of the clam; the grow-out period for hatchery-seeded geoduck is 7-10 years (DFO 2017). Given the long production period, geoduck aquaculture operations require significant investment in terms of capital, planning and management before any return on investment. In addition to biological and ecological challenges, there are legal and social constraints. In the US and Mexico, the use of intertidal and subtidal benthic plots for geoduck aquaculture is restricted and regulated by the Washington Department of Ecology’s Shoreline Master Plans in Washington State and by the Mexican fisheries authority (CONAPESCA) in Baja California. In BC, farming of geoduck is allowed only in the Strait of Georgia. Moreover, most aquaculture tenure agreements stipulate that geoduck farms must maintain a minimum distance of 9 m from eelgrass beds to avoid sedimentation and destruction of eelgrass habitat. The social challenges of geoduck farming are derived from neighboring inhabitants and various interest groups. Human populations tend to concentrate along the shoreline and coastal shoreline property has high value. These neighboring communities are very concerned about pristine waterfront and aesthetic views (Ryan et al. 2017). There have been lawsuits by groups opposing geoduck aquaculture over concerns about potential environmental impacts. Furthermore, coastal communities, especially local First Nations or native tribes deserve a stake in development of their traditional territories. As development of geoduck aquaculture is relatively recent, farming groups are at a disadvantaged position in competing with other interest groups, including housing, boating or mineral exploitation. For example, the Comox Valley waterfront is a potential breeding and nursery ground for geoduck clams that has been occupied by a marina. The permitting process for geoduck aquaculture is also extensive. For example, in Washington State as many as 11 federal, state, tribal, and local agencies are involved in the permitting process for a single farm that may take years of time and thousands of dollars of investment (Ryan et al. 2017). However, unlike salmon or shrimp, farming of geoduck does not require any external feed or chemicals, depending only on primary productivity and seston. It is a native species in North America and various studies suggest that geoduck aquaculture has no or only minor impact on the surrounding environment (Liu et al. 2015, Seafood Watch 2016). Realizing Potential In conclusion, despite its huge potential and significant interest, geoduck aquaculture production is lagging in North America. The following efforts could help realize the full potential of geoduck aquaculture development: • Research organizations should work collaboratively with the shellfish industry to find possible solutions to industry-identified technical problems, including technology development for quality seed production. The study should be conducted at a pilot-scale shellfish research hatchery so that potential operators can get handson experience and share their knowledge on hatchery production techniques. • Policy and regulatory officials should come forward to play a proactive strategic role in the permitting process and to identify or allocate special zones for geoduck aquaculture development. Federal and local government should offer stimulation and subsidy packages to implement various outreach programs on geoduck aquaculture. • Conventional aquaculture is often criticized for causing environmental degradation. Aquaculture industry organizations, including growers associations, should arrange result demonstration programs on geoduck aquaculture or water gardening to minimize negative public perceptions. Acknowledgments This research was funded in part by Manatee Holdings, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada and Mariscos Sustainables, Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico. Additional funding was provided by Centre for Aquaculture and Environmental Research, at the University of British Columbia. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of Oceanix Biotechnology Corporation. Notes A. Kalam Azad and R. Scott McKinley, Oceanix Biotechnology Corporation, Richmond, Vancouver, BC, V6X 1X7, Canada. E-mail: kalamazad.ubc@gmail.com (Corresponding author) References Aragó n-Noriega, E.A., E. Alcá ntara-Razo, L.E. Calderon-Aguilera, and R. Sá nchez-Fourcade. 2012. Status of geoduck clam fisheries in Mexico. Journal of Shellfish Research 31:733-738. Brickey, S., S. Kurlan, M. Miller, T. Monkman, and E. Roemeling. 2012. Comprehensive management of the wild commercial harvest and mariculture of geoduck clams (Panopea generosa) in Southeast Alaska. 20 pp. Cap Log Group. 2013. A value chain analysis of Mexico’s emerging commercial geoduck trade. Prepared for Environmental Defense Fund, Mexico. https://www.caploggroup.com/projects DFO (Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2014. Review of geoduck hatchery protocols currently in place for the Strait of Georgia and evaluation of potential application to other coastal areas in British Columbia. DFO Can Sci. Advis. Sec. Sci. Advis. Rep. 2014/010. DFO (Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2017. Integrated Geoduck Management Framework- Pacific Region. 2017. Ferreira-Arrieta, A., Z. García-Esquivel, M.A. Gonzá lez-Gó mez and E. Valenzuela-Espinoza. 2015. Growth, survival, and feeding rates for the geoduck (Panopea globosa) during larval development. Journal of Shellfish Research 34:55-61. Goodwin, C.L. and B. Pease. 1989. Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates (Pacific Northwest) - Pacific Geoduck Clam. United
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