World Aquaculture Magazine - September 2021

46 SEP TEMBER 2021 • WORLD AQUACULTURE • WWW.WA S .ORG To build a social ecology of aquaculture or to advance the culture of aquaculture, increased attention to participatory processes, problem framing and communications is needed. All require the next generation of aquaculture leaders to be trained more broadly, which will be the topic of my forthcoming article in the December 2021 issue of World Aquaculture . Innovations in Community Science for an Increased Social License for Aquaculture Nobelist Elinor Ostrom challenged the orthodoxy of Garret Hardin and his tragedy of the commons. She painted a much brighter future for successful participatory processes that result in groups that could agree to better manage common property resources. Ostrom identified the underlying design principles for effective governance: clearly defined boundaries, rules formulated by user and outsider participation, longer-term engagement and monitoring and agreed- upon dispute resolution (Ostrom 2009). Adversarial processes (con icts) occur when stakeholders do not recognize each other’s interests as legitimate. These increase conflicts and thrive on uncertainty. Adversarial processes are often exclusive, divisive, opaque and closed. They do not build instant trust. When conflicts are intense, scientific evidence is often used selectively, contested or dismissed. Successful processes are inclusive at the start, well planned and facilitated in a professional, neutral and non-advocacy manner. They are well-funded participatory processes over a longer time than just “projects” and stand in contrast to the permitting processes of governments at any level, such as government- led “lease hearings.” Shared learning and ownership, creative problem solving, joint fact- nding, all employing adaptive management strategies, are the most successful. Virulent conflicts over grizzly bear management in Banff National Park, Canada were resolved by a problem-solving group that shared responsibilities for interpreting scientific evidence and making management decisions (Gibeau 2012). ParticipatoryProcesses Participatory processes themselves have to be articulated, vetted and agreed upon at the outset and not as an afterthought, in a transparent way and their success measured (Fig. 3) (Dalton 2005). Setting the table is vitally important. Aquaculture may be the most rapidly growing form of animal agriculture in many nations but most inquiry in aquaculture is still organized and led by biologists and technologists in a top-down, very traditional and compartmentalized manner. Of course, these highly competent, experienced professionals must be at the table. Neutral, non-advocacy leaders have to be carefully vetted so that it is clear that they have little to no conflict of interest; they must be experienced in dealing with “wicked problems that have few tame solutions”; and they must rewarded (paid well). These are important social investments in aquaculture at the individual level. Among the most important first steps in establishing a process is problem framing. This establishes from the outset what are the priorities and what are not, what the objectives are, and what questions will be asked and answered by the process. To avoid marginalizing the less powerful, it needs to be diverse in its exploration, start from the local and expand scope to the global context, outline systemic challenges, enhance stakeholder comfort and seek diverse sources of knowledge. Problem farming will identify the need for further expertise, tactics and identify the role of advocacy to “catalyze plans into transformative actions” (Kivimaa et al. 2019). Aquaculture has an urgent need for developing and engaging leaders who are well trained as “honest brokers of policy alternatives” (Pilke 2007). Keen et al. (2005) believe transformation toward more sustainable practices will be much more likely if the individuals who make up society can accept change and modify their personal behaviors. Changes in the behavior of individuals can “scope up” and result in larger changes at the community and societal scales by employing a combination of trust-building, favorable performance in facilitation, accountability, exibility and innovation and the inclusion of key community stakeholders and “influencers” in strategic planning (Huckle and Sterling 1996, Brehm and Rahn 1997). CHANS (coupled natural and human systems) is a research group that recognizes that resource management successes or failures are a result of the roles of cultural norms and institutions, local knowledge, social learning and decision theory to diversify livelihood strategies and enhance resource sustainability (Johnson et al. 2015, Carlson et al. 2020). Knowledge co-production methods have advanced. The UK National Institute for Health Research (2018) has issued guiding principles for knowledge co-production in health care systems. Cooke et al. (2020) published a very valuable review of knowledge co-production in fisheries. Co-production methods have been criticized if they intend to structure processes as if all participants in a process have an equal role, while in fact governments, large NGOs and economic interests have disproportionate power and more opportunities for participation (Cangiglia et al. 2021). Leveling the playing field by investing in underserved, marginalized and indigenous communities can assist in correcting power dynamics (Cochran et al. 2014). CarryingCapacityConcepts forAquaculture Inglis et al. (2002) and McKindsey et al. (2006) defined four different types of carrying capacities (physical, production, ecological and social). When ecological science is combined with stakeholder inputs, the resulting ecological carrying capacity calculations are FIGURE 3. Measuring success of public participation includes active participant involvement, complete information exchange, fair decision-making, efficient administration of the process and positive participant interactions to build trust (Dalton 2005).