66 DECEMBER 2012 • WORLD AQUACULTURE • WWW.WAS.ORG traditional ponds or modified ponds — will require greater knowledge about water quality. Water quality deteriorates more quickly as production intensity increases and consequences of impaired water quality are more serious at greater intensities. Environmental Concerns The United States Environmental Protection Agency first expressed interest in aquaculture in the mid-1970s (USEPA 1974). Soon after this, I did a small study on catfish pond effluents (Boyd 1978) and almost became a pariah for having done so. I was admonished by several colleagues and farmers for possibly drawing attention to the issue. In connection with that study, an acquaintance in EPA told me that there were “bigger fish to fry” than aquaculture, and moreover, complaints on fish farmers’ behalf from politicians were influential. In the late 1990s, the EPA finally was persuaded by environmental NGOs to make an aquaculture effluent rule (Federal Register 2004). The effluent rule requires a NPDES permit for ponds designated as concentrated aquatic animal production facilities, but effluent limitation guidelines were not recommended. However, adoption of best management practices (BMPs) was recommended (Boyd et al. 2003, Tucker and Hargreaves 2008). While a consultant to the Asian Development Bank on a project to improve extensive shrimp ponds in Thailand, I visited the first intensive shrimp farm in that country. It was constructed in the midst of many extensive farms. About one year later, I returned to that location and could see nothing but intensive shrimp farms. This particular location was not a good place to do shrimp farming for several reasons and, within a few years, shrimp farms in that area failed. There also was a rash of shrimp farm construction in areas with similar characteristics in other countries. In a presentation at the World Aquaculture Society meeting in Orlando, Florida in 1992, I commented that some shrimp farming was analogous “slash and burn” agriculture and that this practice would draw the ire of Greenpeace and other environmental NGOs. This comment was not received well — even one of my graduate students scolded me. I thought that I was again in danger of becoming an aquacultural pariah. My comments, however, proved to be prophetic, and rather than becoming a pariah, I was able to help formulate aquaculture BMPs and certification standards for NGOs and the aquaculture industry. The quality of aquaculture effluents is a major component of environmental regulations and certification standards. Thus, good water quality management in culture systems is necessary for compliance with governmentally-imposed regulations or voluntary BMP and certification programs. World Wildlife Fund, Global G.A.P., Global Aquaculture Alliance, and several other organizations have developed programs for certifying that aquaculture products from participating farms are produced by environmentallyresponsible methods. Several large restaurant and supermarket chains also have developed purchasing standards to selectively source aquaculture products from farms that are certified to comply with these standards. Certification programs are useful for making environmentally-aware consumers feel good and allowing restaurant and supermarket chains to boast about their environmental commitment. It remains to be determined whether or not certification provides greater environmental benefits than do governmental regulations that have been developed in most major aquaculture countries. Certification also is mainly for aquaculture products imported into developed countries, but most of the world’s aquaculture is conducted in developing countries for local markets. Closing Thoughts Globalization has made most endeavors international, but aquaculture has for many decades been largely an international pursuit. In this respect, I have benefited greatly, because it was always difficult to get much respect in the United States if you spoke with a heavy southern (North Mississippi) accent. However, in most other countries, a southern accent merely is strange and does not suggest to the listener the probable level of sophistication or intelligence of the speaker. Thus, instead of being categorized as a possible “bumpkin” by the listener, you are remembered because of your strange way of speaking. Also, in many developing countries — especially in Asia — professors are revered and an old professor is considered wiser and smarter than a younger one. Thus, I have thoroughly enjoyed my international experiences — at least most of them. One word of advice to those who may in the future speak for their first time to a group of foreigners: do not try to tell a joke to those whose culture you do not fully understand! Notes 1 Department of Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures, Auburn University, Alabama 36849 References Ahmad, T. and C. E. Boyd. 1988. Design and performance of paddlewheel aerators. Aquacultural Engineering 7:39-62. Avnimelech, Y. 2012. Biofloc technology — a practical guide book, 2nd edition. The World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA. Boyd, C. E. 1974. Lime requirements of Alabama fish ponds. Bulletin 459, Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn University, Alabama, USA. Boyd, C. E. 1978. Effluents from catfish ponds during fish harvest. Claude Boyd during one of his many international trips.
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