WWW.WAS.ORG • WORLD AQUACULTURE • DECEMBER 19 (CONTINUED ON PAGE 20) and expanding their programs. This is not to say that the programs are not useful, because they do result in participating facilities improving their performance. The question about how much sourcing policy and ecolabel certification programs actually lessen negative environmental impacts remains and it likely will not be answered in the near future. Nevertheless, most human activities have negative environmental effects, and efforts should be made to lessen the impacts of all activities irrespective of their relative sizes. The fact that certification and sourcing policies can reduce resource use, lessen waste loads, and avoid certain other impacts are important even if the off-site benefits are obscured by other factors. Thus, the expansion of sourcing policy and ecolabel certification programs in aquaculture and other endeavors should be encouraged because they can result in a portion of aquaculture improving its environmental stewardship. Alternatives to Certification Programs: the Central Role of BMPs The need for aquaculture certification and sourcing policies exist primarily because of a lack of concern by some producers over negative impacts of their operations and a failure of governments to implement regulations to lessen these impacts. Of course, it is unlikely that certification and sourcing policies will be adopted by the majority of production facilities — especially those supplying domestic markets in developing countries. We think that the best solution to this dilemma likely would be for governments to develop better policies and regulations for resource use and environmental protection in aquaculture and enforce them — a similar conclusion also was reached by Bush et al. (2013). Better governmental regulation of aquaculture will not happen soon and it possibly will never be adequate in some countries. Thus, there should be more concern about alternative ways of reducing the negative impacts of aquaculture facilities where management is not affected by certification, sourcing policies, or existing government regulations. Standard operating practices to assure product quality and to comply with regulations have been widely adopted in most industries through various programs for efficiency improvement, quality control, environmental management, and product certification. The application of BMPs in agriculture and later in aquaculture was no doubt an off-shoot of programs for standardizing operations in industry. However, in industry and to some extent in agriculture, standard operating practices and BMPs are used to assure efficiency, improve product quality, and lessen negative impacts. Best management practices have been promoted in aquaculture almost entirely as a means to lessen negative environmental impacts and enhance food safety. Although governmental agencies, international development agencies, aquaculture associations, and eNGOs have promoted aquaculture BMPs widely, there is little evidence of BMP adoption aside from their use in complying with standards in sourcing policies, ecolabel certification programs and governmental regulations. Recently the Network of Aquaculture Centres in AsiaPacific (NACA) announced a program called the ASEM (AsiaEurope Meeting) Aquaculture Platform with the objective of promoting wider adoption of BMPs for key aquaculture commodities in NACAmember countries (ec.europa. eu/europeaid/where/asia/regional-cooperation/support-regionalintegration/asem_en.htm). The effort, however, appears to be directed primarily at lessening negative environmental impacts as a means of providing greater opportunity for small-scale TOP, FIGURE 8. Overall view of carp ponds in Guangzhou, China. Photo: Media Department, Auburn University, School of Fisheries, Aquaculture and Aquatic Sciences. MIDDLE, FIGURE 9. Catfish split ponds at Greensboro, Alabama, USA. The photo shows the levee and the constructed channels installed to allow water flow between the two sections of the pond. Photo: Julio Queiroz. BOTTOM, FIGURE 10. Salmon cages at Hitra Island, Norway. The white tubes allow for automated delivery of feed according to fish consumption as monitored by a video camera inside cages. Photo: Julio Queiroz.
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