WWW.WAS.ORG • WORLD AQUACULTURE • MARCH 2017 41 for agar, colagar, carrageenan, alginic acid, sodium alginate and potassium alginate, which in turn are exported by a few companies in Chile. (Information gathered from Chilean customs and Sernapesca 2014) (Fig. 3). In the last 10 years, environmental and social problems arose, mainly because of the exploitation of natural seaweed resources. On one hand, the low value of the resource does not assure a good livelihood to fisherman, and on the other, over-exploitation affects seaweed beds and their associated biodiversity (Krumhansl et al. 2016). This reality was translated in changes to the Chilean vision of the seaweed industry; several management strategies have been implemented successfully, considering management between fishermen unions and the state, using strategies with biological and ecological basis, like morphological constraints, quotas by fishing area, reproductive bans, rotation of harvesting, and also using experimental areas for harvesting and collection (Vásquez et al. 2008, Vásquez et al. 2012, Rebours et al. 2014). Currently, in an international context, the main components of seaweed-derived economic activity are the sea-vegetable sector (76.1 percent of production and 88.3 percent of value), the phycocolloid sector (11.2 percent of production and 10.8 percent of value), and the emerging phycosupplement sector (10.8 percent of production and a presently underestimated value of 0.9 percent, with promised expansion in the near future with new high value-added products) (Bourgougnon and Stiger-Pouvreau 2012). The growing demand for high value-added products, together with traditional demand, provides an opportunity to Chile to develop sustainable seaweed farming and add value to products to diversify exports and internal manufacturing. New efforts through governmental policies are moving in this direction, such as the creation of a new law that grants the culture and repopulation of seaweed, and several funding agencies that are supporting projects focused on seaweed aquaculture and re-valorization of resources. Overall, seaweed aquaculture in Chile is in its infancy and its development must overcome numerous challenges by introducing innovations at different levels. However, the country has a tremendous potential with infrastructure already installed for other species and supportive legislation. Currently we need to focus on development of new products with added value to promote sustainability through culture and reduce dependency on natural beds. In recent years, and to make the most of the carbohydrates available, we developed a four-stage process model for scaling up kelp Macrocystis pyrifera processing, including acid leaching, depolymerization, saccharification, and fermentation steps. Using this process, we obtained 0.213 kg ethanol/kg dry macroalgae, equivalent to 9.6 m3 of ethanol/ha per year, reaching 64 percent of the maximum theoretical ethanol yield (Camus et al. 2016b). In addition, we are also able to extract phlorotannins (Leyton et al. 2016) and we are moving into an integrated extraction procedure to be more efficient with the use of algal biomass and increasing its value in Chile. Acknowledgments The authors thank Fondo BASAL-CONICYT (FB-0001). AHB also appreciates the support of FONDECYT N1150978. Notes Carolina Camus and Alejandro H. Buschmann*, Centro i~mar & CeBiB, Universidad de Los Lagos, Camino Chinquihue Km 6, Puerto Montt, Chile * Corresponding author: abuschma@ulagos.cl References Avila, M., E. Ask, B. Rudolph, M.Nuñez and R. Norambuena. 1999. Economic feasibility of Sarcothalia (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) cultivation. Hydrobiologia 398:435-442. Avila, M., M.I. Piel and A. Alcapan. 2014. Indoor and outdoor culture of Callophyllis variegata (Bory) Kützing (Gigartinales, Rhodophyta) in southern Chile. Journal of Applied Phycology 26:769-774. Bourgougnon, N. and V. Stiger-Pouvreau. 2012. Chemodiversity and bioactivity within red and brown macroalgae along the French coasts, Metropole and Overseas Departments and territories. In S.KI. Kim, editor. Handbook of Marine Macroalgae: Biotechnology and Applied Phycology. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Bulboa, C., J.E. Macchiavello, E.C. Oliveira and E. Fonck. 2005. First attempt to cultivate the carrageenan producing seaweed Chondracanthus chamissoi (Rhodphyta: Gigartinales) in Northern Chile. Aquaculture Research 36:1069-1074. Bulboa, C. and J.E. Macchiavello. 2006. Cultivation of cystocarpic, tetrasporic and vegetative fronds of Chondracanthus chamissoi (Rhodophyta, Gigartinales) on ropes at two localities in northern Chile. Latin American Journal of Aquatic Research 34:151-154. Buschmann, A.H., J.A. Correa and R. Westermeier. 1999. Recent advances in the understanding of the biological basis for Gigartina skottsbergii (Rhodophyta) cultivation in Chile. Hydrobiologia 398:427-434. (CONTINUED ON PAGE 42) FIGURE 2. Total seaweed landings from 2004 to 2014 (Statistical Yearbook, Sernapesca, 2016). FIGURE 3. The value (million US$) of seaweed exports by product form in 2013 (Library of the National Congress of Chile).
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