42 SEPTEMBER 2017 • WORLD AQUACULTURE • WWW.WAS.ORG 1) 1969 to 1984: From the beginning of shrimp aquaculture in Ecuador until the beginning of technification, with little or no technical knowledge. 2) 1985 to 1993: Until the start of the Taura Syndrome. During a period of technology improvement, hatchery post-larvae began to be used, water quality was monitored, and formulated feed began to be used extensively. During this period, the Seagull Syndrome appeared and some antibiotics started to be used. 3) 1994 to 1995: Taura syndrome. Heavy mortality in the first month after stocking. Antibiotics started to be used more extensively. Some farms started stocking P. stylirostris. Many chemicals were tested to try to stop mortalities, with no success. 4) 1996 to 1998: Post Taura syndrome. Increase in productivity, 1997-1998 El Niño boosted production and wild seed availability. Many chemicals and antibiotics were used haphazardly. 5) 1999: White Spot Syndrome onset. When shrimp started dying, farmers experimented with many chemicals, from ozone to pesticides and gadgets such as plankton filters and perimeter barriers for crabs, without success. This coincided with the Ecuadorian financial crisis, with hyper-devaluation, that led to dollarization in the following year. Many shrimp farms, hatcheries, and supporting industries closed. The socioeconomic impact was hard. 6) 2000 to 2005: White Spot Recovery. Permanent ban on wild post-larvae. Antibiotics and non-approved chemicals were discontinued from use in aquaculture. Greater interest in selection of shrimp strains for genetic improvement. Mortalities continued, with extremely low production levels, at first, and gradually recovering to pre-White Spot levels. 7) 2006 to 2012: Post White Spot. Increase in productivity, but with low market prices, and rising costs. During this period most environmental and food safety regulations were implemented, as well as the regulation of shrimp farms and mangrove reforestation. There was a stricter enforcement of laws. Small farms associated to cooperate, and most producers started to develop environmental awareness. 8) 2013 to date: Best production levels so far. Costs have increased, but international market prices are good. Greater environmental awareness. Governance and Socioeconomics It is important to address the regulatory and control efforts made in the past ten years. A regularization plan was put into effect to have all aquaculture-related facilities registered. This plan included environmental profile sheets, compliance with labor laws, mangrove reforestation as needed, and compliance with the National Control Plan. The National Control Plan was a food safety initiative led by the National Fisheries Institute (INP). All actors included in the aquaculture value chain – including hatcheries, farms, feed mills, packing plants, suppliers, transporters, and consumables sellers – are registered, as are the materials approved for use in aquaculture. Together with inspections and the required traceability, these measures ensured the safety of Ecuadorian shrimp. An important effect has been the change of perception of shrimp farmers: 98 percent of survey respondents said that the relationship between aquaculture and the environment has improved; 21 percent said this has happened for fear of fines, but most (76 percent) said it was because of better awareness and education and that it was beneficial to take care of the environment. On the socioeconomic side, shrimp aquaculture has had a positive impact in all zones examined. Shrimp is Ecuador’s second largest generator of non-oil export earnings. Direct jobs in aquaculture are estimated at 180,000, and indirect jobs at 160,000, many in poor rural areas, and 33 percent to women, contributing to gender equity. Additionally, there is a multiplier effect: every dollar from shrimp exports moves three dollars through the Ecuadorian economy. Although some farms halted operations and closed after the white spot crash, at present most shrimp farms are operational and farm prices have almost tripled. In the 1980s, “Ecuadorian White” shrimp became synonymous with “the best shrimp in the world.” In 2000, after drops in production and the price crash, it lost that position and is now trying to recover it. Farmers have higher costs, in part due to increased regulations, environmental and food safety controls, but are not seeing a return on this investment. Efforts have been made in the past years to show Ecuador’s effort for shrimp sustainability under the campaign “The Best Shrimp in the World.” Ecuador’s shrimp farming industry claims it is betting on semi-intensive, low environmental impact, food safety, social awareness, and inclusive culture techniques. This type of shrimp culture has less impact on the environment than intensive shrimp culture (Cao et al. 2011). It appears that the Ecuadorian shrimp farming industry is now on the right track. It remains to be seen how this will continue into the future. Notes Fabrizio Marcillo, ESPOL Polythecnic University. Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL. FIMCBOR. Campo Gustavo Galindo Km 30.5 via Perimietral, P.O. Box 09-01-5863, Guayaquil, Ecuador. fmarcill@espol.edu.ec References Aguirre, V. 2011. Estudio Y Alternativas De Solución Viables Para Las Materias Primas Utilizadas En La Producción Acuícola Del País. Guayaquil: UEES. Cámara Nacional de Acuicultura. 2016. Resumen Ejecutivo de Estadísticas de Exportación de Camarón. Guayaquil. Cao, L., J. Diana, G. Keoleian and Q. Lai. 2011. Life cycle assessment of Chinese shrimp farming systems targeted for export and domestic sales. Environment, Science & Technology 6531-6538. CLIRSEN (Remote Sensing Center (Ecuador)). 2007. Actualización del Estudio Multitemporal de manglares, camaroneras y áreas salinas en la Costa Continental Ecuatoriana al año 2006. Guayaquil: Programa de Manejo de Recursos Costeros, Ministerio del Ambiente. FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). 2016. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2016. FAO, Rome, Italy. Páez-Osuna, F. 2001. The environmental impact of shrimp aquaculture: causes, effects, and mitigating alternatives. Environmental Management 28(1):131-140. Spurrier, W. 2012. Estudio de Impacto de la Acuicultura Camaronera en el Ecuador. Guayaquil. Suman, D. 1994. El Ecosistema de Manglar en América Latina y la Cuenca del Caribe: Su Manejo y Conservación. University of Miami and The Tinker Foundation, New York, New York USA.
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