WWW.WAS.ORG • WORLD AQUACULTURE • DECEMBER 2017 63 and multidisciplinary because it involves species biology, nutritional requirements, water chemistry and disease management, and thus can be very species-specific. The main goal of this article is to discuss general aspects and important developments in broodstock management that allowed rapid expansion of marine invertebrate aquaculture around the world. Ongoing investments in research and development have enhanced farming activities and global production. Major challenges and future perspectives for the industry are also discussed, focusing on knowledge gaps and current research needs. Invertebrate Broodstock Management Nutritional requirements Long-term feeding of invertebrate broodstock in captivity has been possible through evaluation of the feeding ecology and nutritional requirements of each species but there are gaps in knowledge of quantitative nutrient requirements, interactions, and metabolism for each species. High levels of dietary nutrients are required by all invertebrate groups. The provision of mixed diets with different nutritional content has been the approach to provide a wide range of nutrients to adults in captivity. Proteins and essential amino acids are fundamental components of broodstock diets. High protein levels in scallop A. purpuratus, oyster C. gigas, and sea cucumber A. japonicus diets decrease maturation time, increase fecundity and improve larval survival (Farias and Uriarte 2001, Uriarte et al. 2004, Liu et al. 2015). Lipids and essential fatty acids such as docosahexaenoic (DHA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA), and arachidonic (ARA) acids are indispensable in the structural and functional levels of cellular membranes and constitute the main reserve of energy during embryonic development (Robinson 1992). This is especially The global aquaculture production of invertebrates has grown rapidly since the 1950s (Fig. 1). Marine molluscs account for the greatest production, with ~16 million t in 2014. Production of marine crustaceans has also increased, but at a lower rate, reaching ~4.2 million t in 2014. Despite the production of crustaceans being much less than molluscs, the market value of both groups is relatively similar, estimated to be around US$ 20 billion each (Fig. 1), demonstrating the high value associated with marine crustaceans. Echinoderms have also been cultured but production does not exceed 200,000 t, with a market value in 2014 of around US$ 800 million. The major commercial species of marine invertebrates for which broodstock are held in captivity include oysters (Crassostrea gigas, C. virginica, Ostrea edulis, and Pinctada fucata), clams (Ruditapes philippinarum and Mercenaria mercenaria) and scallops (Argopecten purpuratus, A. irradians, Nodipecten subnodosus, and Pecten yessoensis). Among gastropods, abalone (Haliotis sp.) is the most valuable cultured species. Two species of shrimp dominate the aquaculture of marine crustaceans, the black tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) and the Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Hatchery production of crabs has focused on four species of mud crabs (Scylla sp.) and preliminary attempts to culture the American and European lobsters (Homarus americanus and H. gammarus) have been made (Fig. 2). Moreover, a few species of sea urchins (Anthocidaris crassispina, Heterocentrotus pulcherrimus and Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) and sea cucumbers (Apostichopus japonicus, Holothuria scabra, and Isostichopus fuscus) have been hatcheryproduced (Fig. 2). Attempts at commercial production of jellyfish and cephalopods have been made, but only at a small scale. The expansion of marine invertebrate aquaculture was made possible through developments in hatchery technology and sound knowledge of feeding ecology and reproductive biology. The development of broodstock management practices is challenging Marine Invertebrate Broodstock Management: Breakthroughs, Challenges and Future Perspectives Bruno L. Gianasi FIGURE 1. Global aquaculture production and value of marine molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms from 1950 to 2014. Source: FIGIS FAO. (CONTINUED ON PAGE 64) The expansion of marine invertebrate aquaculture was made possible through developments in hatchery technology and sound knowledge of feeding ecology and reproductive biology. The development of broodstock management practices is challenging and multidisciplinary because it involves species biology, nutritional requirements, water chemistry and disease management, and thus can be very species-specific.
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